Philosophical Investigations
Posthumous work ranked most important 20th-century philosophy book.
It is divided into two parts, consisting of what Wittgenstein calls, in the preface, Bemerkungen, translated by G. E. M. Anscombe as 'remarks.' A survey among American university and college teachers ranked the Investigations as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy.
- author
- Ludwig Wittgenstein
- translator
- G. E. M. Anscombe
- field
- Philosophy
- known_for
- Language games, meaning as use, critique of Augustinian picture of language
Lore & Background
In its preface, Wittgenstein says that Philosophical Investigations can 'be seen in the right light only by contrast with and against the background of my older way of thinking.' Wittgenstein's biographer Ray Monk writes, 'This is partly because of the great differences between his early and late work, but also because of the equally important continuities between the two.' The early work in which Wittgenstein expressed his 'older way of thinking' is the only book Wittgenstein published in his lifetime, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. The American philosopher Norman Malcolm credits Piero Sraffa with helping Wittgenstein's break away from the notion that a proposition must literally function as a picture of reality. I am indebted to this stimulus for the most consequential ideas in this book.'
The book begins with a quotation from Johann Nestroy's play Der Schützling: 'The trouble about progress is that it always looks much greater than it really is.' Wittgenstein first mentions games in section 3 and develops this into the key notion of a language game. Wittgenstein's use of the term language game 'is meant to bring into prominence the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or of a life-form.' A central feature of language games is that language is used in a context and cannot be understood outside of that context.
Reader's Guide
Philosophical Investigations is significant for its radical shift in Wittgenstein's philosophy, moving from the picture theory of meaning in the Tractatus to a view that meaning is use within language games. The work criticizes the Augustinian picture of language, where words name objects, and instead argues that the meaning of a word is its use in the language. Wittgenstein's concept of language games emphasizes that language is embedded in social activities and forms of life. The famous example of the word 'game' shows that no single definition covers all cases, yet we use the word successfully. The work also addresses sentence meaning, arguing that a sentence like 'Moses did not exist' acquires significance only when used in a context. Wittgenstein's legacy includes influencing ordinary language philosophy and later analytic philosophy. The Investigations remains a central text for debates on meaning, rule-following, and the nature of philosophical problems.
Did You Know?
- A survey among American university and college teachers ranked the Investigations as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy.
- Wittgenstein's break from his earlier picture theory of meaning was prompted by a rude gesture from Piero Sraffa, who asked 'What is the logical form of that?'
- The book begins with a quotation from Johann Nestroy's play Der Schützling: 'The trouble about progress is that it always looks much greater than it really is.'
- Wittgenstein first mentions games in section 3 and develops this into the key notion of a language game.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who wrote Philosophical Investigations and what is it about?
Ludwig Wittgenstein composed this work as a series of numbered 'remarks' (Bemerkungen) exploring how language actually functions in everyday life. Rather than treating words as simple labels for objects, he argues that meaning emerges from the way we deploy words within specific practices and contexts.
What are the key ideas in Philosophical Investigations?
The book introduces the notion of 'language games' and the principle that meaning is use, directly challenging the Augustinian picture of language in which words are thought to correspond neatly to things. Understanding a word, Wittgenstein insists, means grasping the rules that govern its use in a given activity.
How is Philosophical Investigations structured?
The text is split into two parts and is written as a sequence of numbered remarks rather than a single continuous argument. Wittgenstein himself called these units Bemerkungen, a term G. E. M. Anscombe rendered as 'remarks' in her English edition.
Why is Philosophical Investigations considered so important?
A survey of American university and college teachers ranked it the most significant book of twentieth-century philosophy. Its ideas about meaning-as-use and language games have since reshaped fields ranging from linguistics to cognitive science and literary theory.
Who translated Philosophical Investigations into English?
G. E. M. Anscombe produced the standard English translation of the work. Her choice to render Wittgenstein's German Bemerkungen as 'remarks' has become the conventional phrasing in English-language scholarship on the text.
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