Nicomachean Ethics

Lore & Background

The title is usually assumed to refer to Aristotle's son Nicomachus. One theory is that the work was dedicated to him, another is that it was edited by him (though he is believed to have died young, probably before he could have managed this alone). Another possibility is that the work was dedicated to Aristotle's father, who was also named Nicomachus. It is unlikely that it was dedicated by Aristotle himself, as it does not appear to be in a form Aristotle intended for publication. Rather it seems to be something like lecture notes meant for the lecturer or for consultation by students. The oldest known reference to the Nicomachean Ethics by that title is in the works of Aspasius (early 2nd century CE), who also refers to the Eudemian Ethics by name. Parts of the Nicomachean Ethics overlap with Aristotle's Eudemian Ethics: Books V, VI, and VII of the Nicomachean Ethics are identical to Books IV, V, and VI of the Eudemian Ethics. Opinions about the relationship between the two works differ. One suggestion is that three books from the Nicomachean Ethics were lost and subsequently replaced by three parallel works from the Eudemian Ethics, which would explain the overlap. Another is that both works were not put into their current form by Aristotle, but by an editor.

Reader's Guide

The Nicomachean Ethics had an important influence on the European Middle Ages, and was one of the core works of medieval philosophy. As such, it was of great significance in the development of all modern philosophy as well as European law and theology. Aristotle became known as 'the Philosopher' (for example, this is how he is referred to in the works of Thomas Aquinas). In the Middle Ages, a synthesis between Aristotelian ethics and Christian theology became widespread, as introduced by Albertus Magnus. The most important version of this synthesis was that of Thomas Aquinas. Other more 'Averroist' Aristotelians such as Marsilius of Padua were also influential. Until well into the seventeenth century, the Nicomachean Ethics was still widely regarded as the main authority for the discipline of ethics at Protestant universities, with over fifty Protestant commentaries published before 1682. During the seventeenth century, however, authors such as Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes argued that the medieval and Renaissance Aristotelian tradition in practical thinking was impeding philosophy. Interest in Aristotle's ethics has been renewed by the virtue ethics revival. Recent philosophers in this field include Alasdair MacIntyre, G. E. M. Anscombe, Mortimer Adler, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Martha Nussbaum.

Did You Know?

• The oldest known reference to the Nicomachean Ethics by that title is in the works of Aspasius, dating to the early 2nd century CE.
• Books V, VI, and VII of the Nicomachean Ethics are identical to Books IV, V, and VI of the Eudemian Ethics.
• The oldest surviving manuscript is the Codex Laurentianus LXXXI.11 (referred to as 'Kb'), which dates to the 10th century.
• After Aristotle's death, his library was hidden in a cellar by the heirs of Neleus for about a century and a half to prevent seizure by the Kingdom of Pergamon.
• Over fifty Protestant commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics were published before 1682.

A Practical Guide to Living Well

The Nicomachean Ethics positions itself not as a detached theoretical inquiry but as a living tool for practical human flourishing. Aristotle frames ethics as the science of the good for human life—the ultimate end toward which all our actions ultimately aim. This orientation traces back to Socrates, whom Aristotle credits in his Metaphysics with redirecting philosophy from the purely theoretical concerns of pre-Socratic natural science toward questions about how people should actually live. Plato, Aristotle's own teacher and friend, had already explored this theme, and Aristotle builds directly on that foundation. Crucially, the work does not merely investigate what goodness consists of; it aspires to be of direct, practical help in achieving the good. This practical character distinguishes it from theoretical disciplines in the strict Aristotelian sense of those terms. The text is organized into ten books and stands as the essential key for interpreting Aristotle's broader ethical thought, while remaining closely related to his Eudemian Ethics.

Textual Overlaps and the Question of Authorship

A persistent puzzle surrounding the Nicomachean Ethics is its substantial overlap with Aristotle's Eudemian Ethics. Books V, VI, and VII of the Nicomachean text are identical to Books IV, V, and VI of the Eudemian work. Scholars have proposed different explanations: one theory holds that three original books from the Nicomachean Ethics were lost and subsequently replaced by parallel material drawn from the Eudemian Ethics. Another suggests that neither work reached its current form under Aristotle's own hand, but was shaped by a later editor. The title itself adds to the uncertainty. It is generally assumed to reference Aristotle's son Nicomachus, though some have proposed it honors Aristotle's father, who shared the same name. The work does not appear to have been prepared by Aristotle for formal publication; rather, it reads like lecture notes intended for the instructor or for student consultation. The oldest known reference to the text by this title appears in the writings of Atticus, dating to around 175 CE.

Medieval Dominance and Early Modern Challenge

For centuries, the Nicomachean Ethics served as a cornerstone of European intellectual life. In the Middle Ages, it became one of the central texts of philosophy, profoundly shaping the development of modern philosophy, European law, and theology. Aristotle earned the title 'the Philosopher,' a designation used by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. A major synthesis between Aristotelian ethics and Christian theology was introduced by Albertus Magnus, and the most influential version of this integration was crafted by Thomas Aquinas. More Averroist-leaning Aristotelians, including Marsilius of Padua, also left their mark. This dominance persisted into the seventeenth century, when the work was still treated as the principal authority on ethics at Protestant universities; more than fifty Protestant commentaries appeared before 1682. Yet that very century saw a decisive challenge. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes argued that the medieval and Renaissance Aristotelian tradition in practical thinking was actually holding philosophy back, marking a turning point in how the discipline would be understood going forward.

A Perilous Journey Through the Centuries

The physical survival of the Nicomachean Ethics is a remarkable story of loss and recovery. After Aristotle's death, his library passed to Theophrastus, his successor at the Lycaeum, and after Theophrastus's own death, it went to Neleus of Scepsis. When the Kingdom of Pergamon began conscripting books for a royal collection, the heirs of Neleus hid the manuscripts in a cellar to avoid seizure. The texts remained in those poor conditions for roughly a century and a half. Only after the death of Attalus III ended the royal library ambitions was the collection's existence revealed. Apellicon purchased it and brought it back to Athens around 100 BCE, where he had the damaged manuscripts copied and filled gaps with his best guesses. When Sulla seized Athens in 86 BCE, the library was transferred to Rome. There, Andronicus of Rhodes organized the texts into the first complete edition of Aristotle's works, and these manuscripts form the foundation of all present-day editions, including that of the Nicomachean Ethics.